GOLLuM: Gaussian Process Optimized LLMs -- Reframing LLM Finetuning through Bayesian Optimization

• URL: http://arxiv.org/abs/2504.06265v2
• Date: Wed, 09 Apr 2025 23:45:44 GMT
• Title: GOLLuM: Gaussian Process Optimized LLMs -- Reframing LLM Finetuning through Bayesian Optimization
• Authors: Bojana Ranković, Philippe Schwaller,
• Abstract summary: Large Language Models (LLMs) can encode complex relationships in their latent spaces.<n>We introduce LLM-based deep kernels, jointly optimized with GPs to preserve the benefits of both.<n>Our method nearly doubles the discovery rate of high-performing reactions compared to static LLM embeddings.
• Score: 0.4037357056611557
• License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
• Abstract: Large Language Models (LLMs) can encode complex relationships in their latent spaces, yet harnessing them for optimization under uncertainty remains challenging. We address this gap with a novel architecture that reframes LLM finetuning as Gaussian process (GP) marginal likelihood optimization via deep kernel methods. We introduce LLM-based deep kernels, jointly optimized with GPs to preserve the benefits of both - LLMs to provide a rich and flexible input space for Bayesian optimization and - GPs to model this space with predictive uncertainty for more efficient sampling. Applied to Buchwald-Hartwig reaction optimization, our method nearly doubles the discovery rate of high-performing reactions compared to static LLM embeddings (from 24% to 43% coverage of the top 5% reactions in just 50 optimization iterations). We also observe a 14% improvement over domain-specific representations without requiring specialized features. Extensive empirical evaluation across 19 benchmarks - ranging from general chemistry to reaction and molecular property optimization - demonstrates our method's robustness, generality, and consistent improvements across: (1) tasks, (2) LLM architectures (encoder, decoder, encoder-decoder), (3) pretraining domains (chemistry-related or general-purpose) and (4) hyperparameter settings (tuned once on a single dataset). Finally, we explain these improvements: joint LLM-GP optimization through marginal likelihood implicitly performs contrastive learning, aligning representations to produce (1) better-structured embedding spaces, (2) improved uncertainty calibration, and (3) more efficient sampling - without requiring any external loss. This work provides both practical advances in sample-efficient optimization and insights into what makes effective Bayesian optimization.

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